Fine art Umayyad

Fine art at the time of the Umayyad heavily influenced by Byzantine art, as a result of the transfer of the seat of government of Islam from Mecca to Syria. This fine art exhibit many characteristics of early Christian art, which forms the basilica and tower. As can be seen in the Umayyad Mosque which originally was Johannes Church in Damascus. The interior of this mosque cultivated Greek artists from Constantinople.

At this time decorative mosaics and stucco are influenced by geometric repetition as a sign of the rapid growth of science. Besides typical field in the middle of the mosque began to be replaced by a large room that was closed dome.

At this time, also known as caliphs were very attentive to the preservation of the mosques, the Caliph Abdul Malik and the Caliph Al-walid. Caliph Abdul Malik built the Dome of the Rock (also known by the name of esh Quber Mosque and the Mosque of Umar Sakhra) been increased as a reminder of where the Prophet Muhammad to heaven on Isra-Miraj. In addition it also built the Al Aqsa Mosque.

The Umayyads also left many castles that have discrete, that is building in the middle of an isolated desert, although many have now broken. Examples are Kusair Amra Palace.

Islamic art

Islamic art is art that flourished in the time of birth until the end of the golden age of Islam. The range can be defined include the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, Middle East, and Europe since its advent of Islam in 571 AD to begin withdrawal of Turkish Ottoman rule. Although the real Islam and the arts spread much wider than that and still survive today.

Islamic art is a typical discussion with the principle of art that has specificity when compared to the art known at this time. But the role itself is quite large in the development of modern art. Among others in the appearance of contemporary elements such as abstraction and philosophy of beauty. Islamic art of calligraphy processing also bring inspiration into decorative motifs.

Decoration in Islamic art more to cover the true nature of the medium of architecture than are found in this period, the furniture. The decor is known as arabesque.

Remains of Islamic art form of many mosques, palaces, illustration books, and tapestries.

fine arts

Fine art is a branch of art that make up the artwork with the media could catch the eyes and felt with palpation. This impression is created by processing concept point, line, plane, shape, volume, color, texture, and lighting with aesthetic references.

Fine art in terms of its functions divided between pure art and applied art, the process of creating art purely focuses on purely mental expressions such as painting, applied art while the manufacturing process has a specific purpose and function of art as craft. Whereas, if the terms of shape and form, art is divided into two 2-dimensional art that has only length and width only, and 3-dimensional art that has length and space.

In rough translation of art in the English language is a fine art. But with the development of the modern art world, the term fine art to be more specific to the sense of pure art and then combined it with the design and craft into a discussion of the visual arts.

Pajoge

Pajoge is a kind of dance that originated from South Sulawesi, both Bugis and Makassar.

Dance pajoge usually displayed in the palace or the residence of the royalty by the girl who came from among the common people. At first dance is only an entertainment for men. The audience, usually of the royalty, sitting in a circle. The dancers dance circle. Each dancer dancing alone, singing and looking for partners in the audience. Then he would give betel leaves to the man who has been chosen. Men will be dancing with the girl.

earth

Earth is the third planet from the eight planets in the Solar System. Estimated to reach 4.6 billion year age. The distance between the Earth to the Sun is 149.6 million kilometers or 1 AU (English: Astronomical Unit). At the Earth's rotation is 23 hours 56 minutes 4 seconds. While at the time of revolution is 365.25 days. Earth has a layer of air (atmosphere) and the so-called magnetic field (magnetosphere) that protect Earth's surface from the solar wind, ultraviolet light and radiation from space. This air layer surrounds the Earth to a height of about 700 kilometers. The air layer is divided into Troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.

The ozone layer, as high as 50 kilometers, are in the stratosphere and mesosphere and protects the Earth from ultraviolet rays. The difference in the surface temperature of the Earth is between -70 ° C to 55 ° C depending on the local climate. The day is divided into 24 hours, and a year on Earth equal to 365.2425 days. Earth has a mass weighing 59 760 billion tons, with a surface area of ​​510 million square kilometers. The density of the Earth (about 5,500 kilograms per cubic meter) is used as a unit of weight ratio of any other type of planet, the gravity of the Earth is set as 1.

The Earth has a diameter of 12,756 kilometers long. Earth's gravity is measured as 10 N kg-1 be a unit of measure of the gravity of other planets, the Earth's gravity is set as 1. Earth has one natural satellite is the moon. 70.8% of Earth's surface covered with water. Earth Air consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen and 1% water vapor, carbon dioxide and other gases.

Earth estimated to be made up in the Earth's core consists of iron-nickel-thick frozen 1370 kilometers with temperatures 4500 ° C, is also covered by a liquid outer core that is 2100 kilometers thick, and covered also by the 2800 kilometer-thick mantle of silica forming 83% content of the Earth and eventually completely covered by the Earth's crust about 85 kilometers thick.

Thinner crust on the ocean floor is about 5 kilometers. Earth's crust is divided to several parts and moving through the movement of tectonic plates (the theory of continental drift) that produce earthquakes.

The highest point on Earth's surface as high as Mount Everest is 8,848 meters and the deepest point is the Mariana trench in the Pacific with a depth of 10,924 meters. Lake Baikal is the deepest lake with a depth of 1637 meters, the largest lake is the Caspian Sea with an area of ​​394,299 km2.

Coal-forming material

Almost all of the coal-forming plants. The types of plants and coal-forming age by Diessel (1981) are as follows:

-Algae, from Pre-Cambrian Times to the Ordovician and single-celled. Very few coal deposit of this period.

-Silofita, from the Silurian Period to the Middle Devon, is derived from algae. Few coal deposit of this   

 period.

-Pteridofita, age of Upper Devonian to Upper Carboniferous. The main coal-forming material from Carbon  

 in Europe and North America. Plants without flowers and seeds, spores multiply and grow in warm 

 climates.

-Gimnospermae, a period ranging from Permian to Cretaceous Middle Ages. Heterosexual plants, seeds  

 encased in fruit, such as pine, contain high levels of sap (resin) high. Type Pteridospermae like  

 gangamopteris and Glossopteris is the main constituent Permian coal as in Australia, India and Africa.

-Angiosperms, from the Upper Cretaceous period until now. Modern plants, the fruit covering the seeds, the  

 male and female in one flower, less gummy than gimnospermae so that, in general, less well preserved.

The formation of acid rain

In simple terms, acid rain formation reaction as follows:

Evidence of an increase in acid rain derived from the analysis of polar ice. Looks pH levels to drop since the start of the Industrial Revolution from 6 to 4.5 or 4. Other information obtained from organisms known as diatoms which inhabit ponds. After many years, the dead organisms will settle in layers of sediment in the bottom of the pool. Diatom growth will increase at a certain pH, so the number of diatoms found in the bottom of the pool will show the pH changes on an annual basis when we look into each of these layers.

Since the start of the Industrial Revolution, the amount of emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides into the atmosphere is increasing. Industries that use fossil fuels, especially coal, a major source of sulfur oxides is increasing. PH readings in industrial areas are sometimes recorded up to 2.4 (the acidity of vinegar). These sources, plus the transportation, are major contributors to acid rain.

The problem of acid rain not only increased in line with population growth and industrial but has evolved to become more widespread. The use of a high chimney to reduce local pollution contribute to the spread of acid rain, due to the release of greenhouse gas emissions will go to the regional air circulation which have greater reach. Often, acid rain occurs in areas far from the source, where the mountainous regions tend to earn more because of high rainfall here.

There is a close relationship between low pH with decreasing fish populations in lakes. pH below 4.5 is not possible for fish to live, while pH 6 or higher will help the growth of the fish population. Acid in the water will inhibit the enzyme production of trout larvae to come out of their eggs. Acid also bind toxic metals in the lake are like aluminum. Aluminum will cause some fish secrete excessive mucus around the gills so that the fish could hardly breathe. Phytoplankton growth is the source of fish food is also inhibited by high pH levels.

Plants affected by acid rain in various ways. Waxy coating on the leaves is broken so that the nutrients disappear so the plants are not resistant to the cold, fungi and insects. Root growth slows so fewer nutrients that can be taken, and essential minerals to be lost.

The ions are separated due to toxic acid rain became a major threat to humans. Copper in water affects outbreaks of diarrhea in children and aluminum contaminated water can cause Alzheimer's disease.

The greenhouse effect

All energy sources that exist on Earth comes from the Sun. Most of the energy in the form of short-wave radiation, including visible light. When this energy is reached the Earth's surface, it changes from light into heat that warms the Earth. The earth's surface will absorb some of the heat and reflect the rest. Some of this heat is tangible long-wave infrared radiation into space. However, most of the heat remains trapped in the Earth's atmosphere due to accumulated amount of greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide and methane into the trap wave radiation. These gases absorb and reflect radiation emitted by the Earth and consequently heat will be stored on the surface of the Earth. This situation occurs continuously, resulting in an annual average temperature of the earth continues to rise.

These gases may act as a greenhouse gas. With increasing concentrations of these gases in the atmosphere, the more heat is trapped beneath it.

The greenhouse effect is needed by all living things on earth, because without it, the planet would be very cool. With an average temperature of 15 ° C (59 ° F), the earth actually had more hot 33 ° C (59 ° F) from the original temperature, if there is no greenhouse effect of the earth's temperature is only -18 ° C so that the ice will cover the entire the Earth's surface. However, on the contrary, if these gases in the atmosphere has been excessive, will cause global warming.

History of the Internet

The Internet is a computer network established by the U.S. Department of Defense in 1969, through a project called ARPANET ARPA (Advanced Research Project Agency Network), where they demonstrated how the computer hardware and software based on UNIX, we can make communication within the infinity through the telephone line.

ARPANET project designing a network, reliability, how much information can be transferred, and eventually all of the standards that they set into the embryo development of a new protocol which is now known as TCP / IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol).

The initial purpose of the project was built for military purposes. At that time the Department of Defense of the United States (U.S. Department of Defense) create a system of computer networks to connect computers scattered in areas vital to tackle the problem in case of nuclear attack and to avoid centralized information, which in the event of war can easily be destroyed.

At first ARPANET only 4 sites linking only the Stanford Research Institute, University of California, Santa Barbara, University of Utah, where they form an integrated network in 1969, and in general the ARPANET was introduced in October 1972. Not long after the project is growing rapidly in all regions, and all universities in the country wants to join, thus making it difficult to set the ARPANET.

Therefore ARPANET split widened two, namely "MILNET" for military purposes and the "ARPANET" new smaller for non-military purposes, such as universities. Combined both networks eventually known as the DARPA Internet, which then reduces to the Internet.

Camera SLR (Single Lens Reflect)

In SLR cameras, the light that enters the camera's eye deflected photographer so photographers get the identical shade that will be formed. When the photographer pressed the shutter speed button, the light will be deflected back into the medium (or film). SLR camera lenses can be changed at will change, well liked the photo expert, or hobby, lens holder on different objects depending on the camera body camera brands, ranging from wide-angle lens (wide angle), telephoto (long distance), and a normal lens (standard 50 mm), is also a long zoom lens with lens varying

The origin of the name Pinrang

There are several versions of the origin of the name Pinrang Pinrang developed in the community itself.

The first version of the call that comes from Bugis Pinrang the word "benrang" which means "water pool" can also mean "swamp". This is caused by the early opening of the exact area Pinrang currently Pinrang downtown district is still a low area that is often flooded and marshy.

The second version says that it is caused by the one time King Sawitto named La Dorommeng La Paleteange, free of exile from the kingdom of Gowa the help Baso White Panca Enrekang and assisted the brave troops of Kampung Kaluppini Enrekang. The arrival was welcomed by his people, but they were amazed because the king's face changed and they said "Pinra bawangngi tappana puatta pole Gowa", which means changing it faces from Gowa Our Master. Then after that people started calling the area as a means Pinra changed, the future of local communities transform into Pinrang mention.

Another source said the former settlement of Pinrang swamps inundated always makes people move constantly looking for residential areas that are free standing water, moving or changing settlements in the Bugis language called "PINRA-PINRA ONROANG". Once people find a good settlement, the place was given the name: PINRA-PINRA.

Of the two different histories was born the same term, namely "PINRA", then said it was in development is influenced by intonation and dialect Bugis to become Pinrang currently enshrined into the name of Pinrang.

Sop Konro

This dish is in the form of soup or stew burned with basic ingredients such as cow or buffalo ribs, cooked / baked with spices coriander, cumin, lemongrass, kaloa, onion, garlic, salt, mashed vitsin already. Sop Konro generally served / eaten with white rice and sambal.

Coto Makassar

This dish is one of the "trade mark" culinary Makassar form soupy soup with the ingredients comprising the intestine, liver, brain, or horse beef, cooked with herbs lemongrass, galangal, coriander, cumin, onion, garlic, salt that has been refined, bay leaf, lemon juice, and nuts. In general, Coto Makassar served / eaten with a diamond. While still living in Makassar first, I often eat this dish, especially when you're sick with the flu / cold. Guaranteed, when eaten with spicy sambal sauce coto when inhaled while chewing the diamond, it would colds "bablas" with sweat pouring.

Bodo outfit South Sulawesi

is a Bugis-Makassar traditional dresses worn by women. While Lipa 'Sabbe is a silk sheath, usually patterned box and used as subordinate bodo clothes.

It is said that long ago, there are regulations regarding the use bodo clothes. Each color manunjukkan women ages wear.
1. Orange, worn by women aged 10 years.
2. Orange and red blood used by women aged 10-14 years.
3. The red color of blood for 17-25 years.
4. The white color is used by the host and shaman.
5. The green color reserved for royalty princess
6. Purple color worn by widows.

In addition to usage rules bodo's clothes, formerly also still frequently found Bugis-Makassar women who wear clothes Bodo as party wear, for example wedding. But today, these traditional dresses are being eroded by the changing times. Clothes bodo now marginalized, replaced by a modern kebaya dress, evening dress that she fashionable, or dresses are simple and follow the trend.

Despite the keterpinggirannya, clothes worn by bodo now fixed bride in a wedding reception or ceremony. Similarly to his passappi' (escort the bride, usually children). Also used by a fence ayu.

Newton's laws of motion

Newton's laws of motion are three physical laws that form the basis of classical mechanics. This law describes the relationship between the forces acting on an object and the motion they produce. This law has been written with a different pembahasaan for nearly three centuries, and can be summarized as follows:

First Law: Every object will have a constant velocity unless a non-zero resultant force acting on the object. Meaning if the resultant force is zero, then the center of mass of an object remains at rest or moving at a constant speed (not accelerating).
Second Law: A body of mass M having the resultant force of F will accelerate a direction similar to the direction of the force, and the magnitude is proportional to F and inversely proportional to M. or F = Ma. It could also mean the resultant force acting on an object is equal to the derivative of the linear momentum of the object with respect to time.
Third Law: action and reaction force of two objects have the same magnitude, the direction reversed, and the line. This means that if an object A, which gives a force of F on object B, then object B will give a force of-F to object A. F and-F have the same magnitude but different direction. This law is also known as the action-reaction law, with F called the action and-F is a reaction.

The three laws of motion was first summarized by Isaac Newton in his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, first published on July 5, 1687. Newton used his work to explain and investigate the motion of a variety of physical objects and systems. For example, in the third volume of the text, Newton showed that the laws of motion combines with the general law of gravity, he can explain Kepler's laws of planetary movements belong.

Electrostatic Discharge

The history begins with the observed electrical amber or resin material which in Greek means the electrons, which if the material is rubbed with a furry animal skin will be able to draw objects subtle light after sticking to it and refuse. The nature of such apparently transmitted to other objects disinggungkan or attached to it, which is why the object was then said to be charged "keambaran" or resinious. The same thing apparently happened with glass rubbed with silk cloth, which makes the transmission of other objects attached to it charged "kekacaan" or vitrious. In 1733, Francois du Fay discovered the fact that in nature there are only two types of cargo, that is cargo resinious and vitrious, and the two objects are the same charge will repel and opposite two objects attract each other if the charges do not. Then Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) found that the two types of cargo and vitrious resinious that when combined will cancel each other out as well as positive and negative numbers. Since then charge resinious called a negative electrical charge and vitrious called with a positive electrical charge. Continuing the Michelson and Carlisle of electrolysis, Michael Faraday (1791-1867) in 1883 suggested terkuantisasinya electrical charge to units of cargo, which by Stoney in 1874, powered by JJ Thomson in 1897, hypothesized the existence of particles unit electric charge carriers are then called elekron. As the resin, the electron is said to produce a negative electrical charge then elektronpun be electrically charged negative.

Coulomb law

Although J.C. Maxwell (1831-1879) managed to integrate all electrical laws and formulas in the form of four equations were then known as maxwell equations such that all phenomena can be explained by electrical always or translated from the fourth equation, essentially four equations that can be integrated into or can be translated of Coulomb's law:

namely that states that the force between two electric charges q1 and q2 will be proportional to the number of electric charges respectively, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance (r) between two electrical charges, as well as depending on the medium in which it is the second charge, that the formulation set medium by a constant k. So Coulomb's law is a fundamental law in the science of electricity, which underlies all applicable laws and electrical formulas, as well as law 'initials Newton mechanics underlying the laws and formulas mechanics. In the mks system of units, medium constants k inscribed as 1 / (4 π ε), so that a form of Coulomb's law:

 

and ε is called the permittivity of the medium. With positive F means force that repel and opposite negative F means of attraction.

Law of Conservation of Momentum

Just like energy, under certain conditions, the momentum of a system will be eternal or unchanging. To provide an understanding of it, it will use the concept of mass center. For example if there is a system consisting of multiple objects with a mass moving with velocity, respectively, then the speed of the center of mass of the system are:

And if the system is moving with accelerated with the acceleration, respectively, then the acceleration of the center of mass of the system are:

Now if the objects are each assigned a style, then these objects each have acceleration:

So the acceleration of the center of mass of the system can be expressed as:

Notasi a notation stating the resultant force acting on the system. If the resultant force acting on the system is zero (),then the system is not accelerated (). If the system is not accelerating, it means the system is the speed of the center of mass of the system is constant ().So it can be concluded that:

The notation above is a notation of the law of conservation of momentum. So the total momentum of a system is always conserved only if the resultant force acting on the system is zero.

Resurrection and judgment

Belief in the "Day of Resurrection", Yawm al-Qiyāmah is also crucial for Muslims. They believe the time of Qiyāmah is preordained by God but unknown to man. The trials and tribulations preceding and during the Qiyāmah are described in the Qur'an and the hadith, and also in the commentaries of scholars. The Qur'an emphasizes bodily resurrection, a break from the pre-Islamic Arabian understanding of death.

On Yawm al-Qiyāmah, Muslims believe all mankind will be judged on their good and bad deeds. The Qur'an lists several sins that can condemn a person to hell, such as disbelief and dishonesty; however, the Qur'an makes it clear God will forgive the sins of those who repent if he so wills. Good deeds, such as charity and prayer, will be rewarded with entry to heaven. Muslims view heaven as a place of joy and bliss, with Qur'anic references describing its features and the physical pleasures to come. Mystical traditions in Islam place these heavenly delights in the context of an ecstatic awareness of God.

Prophets

Muslims identify the prophets of Islam as those humans chosen by God to be his messengers. According to the Qur'an the descendants of Abraham and Imran were chosen by God to bring the "Will of God" to the peoples of the nations. Muslims believe that prophets are human and not divine, though some are able to perform miracles to prove their claim. Islamic theology says that all of God's messengers preached the message of Islam—submission to the will of God. The Qur'an mentions the names of numerous figures considered prophets in Islam, including Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses and Jesus, among others. Muslims believe that God finally sent Muhammad (Seal of the Prophets) to convey the divine message to the whole world (to sum up and to finalize the word of God). In Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as hadith ("reports"), which recount his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. Hadith Qudsi is a sub-category of hadith, regarded as the words of God repeated by Muhammad differing from the Quran in that they are "expressed in Muhammad's words", whereas the quran are the "direct words of God". The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an. Six of these collections, compiled in the 3rd century AH (9th century CE), came to be regarded as especially authoritative by the largest group in Islām, the Sunnites. Another large group, the Shīʾah, has its own Ḥadīth contained in four canonical collections.

Articles of faith

The core beliefs of Islam are that there is only one god – unitary and beyond comprehension – and that Muhammad is the prophet of God, the last in a series of prophets beginning with Adam. The Qur'an is upheld as the eternal, literal word of God, and revelations to earlier prophets, as seen in the Jewish Torah and Christian Gospels, are believed to have become distorted by human intervention. Muslims believe that the Qur’an was revealed to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel, and belief in angels as God’s servants is part of the Islamic tradition. Belief in the Day of Judgment, when all people will undergo bodily resurrection and be judged by God, is another core tenet. While Sunni and Shi’a Muslims adhere to these basic beliefs, Shi’a also believe in the Imamate, the line of infallible spiritual and political leaders who succeeded Muhammad, beginning with his cousin and son-in-law, Ali.

Etymology and meaning

Islam is a verbal noun originating from the triliteral root s-l-m which forms a large class of words mostly relating to concepts of wholeness, safeness and peace. In a religious context it means "voluntary submission to God". Muslim, the word for an adherent of Islam, is the active participle of the same verb of which Islām is the infinitive. Believers demonstrate submission to God by serving God and following his commands, and rejecting polytheism. The word sometimes has distinct connotations in its various occurrences in the Qur'an. In some verses (ayat), there is stress on the quality of Islam as an internal conviction: "Whomsoever God desires to guide, He expands his breast to Islam." Other verses connect islām and dīn (usually translated as "religion"): "Today, I have perfected your religion (dīn) for you; I have completed My blessing upon you; I have approved Islam for your religion." Still others describe Islam as an action of returning to God—more than just a verbal affirmation of faith. Another technical meaning in Islamic thought is as one part of a triad of islam, imān (faith), and ihsān (excellence) where it represents acts of service (`ibādah) and Islamic law (sharia).

Adobe Dreamweaver

Adobe Dreamweaver is a web page editing program output Adobe Systems formerly known as Macromedia Macromedia Dreamweaver output. The program is widely used by web developers because of its attractive and ease of use. The latest version of Macromedia Dreamweaver before Macromedia was purchased by Adobe Systems which is version 8. The latest version of Dreamweaver output is version 12 of Adobe Systems is in the Adobe Creative Suite 6 (often abbreviated Adobe CS6).

Macromedia

Macromedia is a software company engaged in the field of graphic and web development. The company was founded in 1992 and has grown rapidly in the 1990s and early 2000s. In December 2005, Macromedia acquired a rival company, Adobe Systems, Adobe temporary but is still using Macromedia name on a number of programs.

Macromedia was established in 1992 through the merger of Authorware Inc.. (manufacturer of Authorware) and MacroMind-Paracomp (Macromind manufacturers Director). Until the mid-1990s, Macromedia Director is used to produce CD-ROMs and information kiosks Macromedia is still a superior product, but with increasing popularity of the World Wide Web creating Macromedia Shockwave, a web browser plugin for the Director and in 1996 acquired two companies web-oriented, FutureWave software (which makes FutureSplash Animator - which later evolved into Flash) and iBand software (makers of HTML authoring software - which is used as a basis for developing Dreamweaver).

Macromedia acquired Allaire in 2001, which develops ColdFusion before eventually own in 2005 Macromedia was purchased by Adobe.

Features Photoshop

Although it was originally designed to edit images for paper-based printing, Photoshop is also used to produce images for the World Wide Web. Some versions also include an additional application, Adobe ImageReady, for this purpose.

Photoshop also has strong ties with some software for media editing, animation, and other Adobe authoring. Native Photoshop file format,. PSD, can be exported to and from Adobe ImageReady. Adobe Illustrator, Adobe Premiere Pro, After Effects, and Adobe Encore DVD to make professional DVDs, provide non-linear image editing and special effects services such as backgrounds, textures, etc for television, movies, and websites. For example, Photoshop CS broadly supports making menus and buttons (button) DVD.

Photoshop can accept the use of multiple color models:

-RGB color models

-Lab color models

-CMYK color models

-grayscale

-bitmap

-duotone

The latest version, released in 2005, is version 9. The program is marketed under the name "Photoshop CS2." "CS" reflects its integration with applications Photoshop "Adobe Creative Suite and is called" 2 "because it is the second version released since Adobe to integrate the two products. There are some in addition to Photoshop CS2 such as multiple layer and selecting" warp, "curve version of the transform tool and the color replacement tool, previously present as a plug-in 8BF.

For photography enthusiasts, Adobe provides a filter "reduce grain" (reduced grain) that can help optimize photos taken in low light. To "clarify" CS product differences with previous products Photoshop, Adobe Photshop eliminate eye symbol, which was presented in a form different from version 3 to version 7. Photshop CS and CS2 now use fur as an icon and a form of identification.

Adobe Photoshop

Adobe Photoshop, or Photoshop commonly called, is made ​​in the image editor software Adobe Systems is devoted to editing photos / drawings and manufacturing effects. The software is widely used by digital photographers and advertising company that is considered as the market leader (market leader) for image processing software / photos, and, together with Adobe Acrobat, is regarded as the best product ever produced by Adobe Systems. Eighth version of the application is called by the name of Photoshop CS (Creative Suite), version called Adobe Photoshop CS2 nine, ten version called Adobe Photoshop CS3 version of Adobe Photoshop CS4 is the eleventh, twelfth version is Adobe Photoshop CS5, and the last version (thirteenth) is Adobe Photoshop CS6.

Photoshop is available for Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Mac OS; versions 9 and above can also be used by other operating systems such as Linux using software such as CrossOver.

Ritual Pinisi development

Sacrifice for pinisi boat building is one in which the splendor pinisi dilahirkan.Para traditional boat builders, namely: people Ara, Tana Lemo and Bira, who inherited the tradition from generation to generation marine ancestors. The ritual is also still characterize the process of making this boat, Good day to collect firewood typically falls on the fifth and seventh month. Figures 5 (naparilimai dalle'na) which means the provision already in hand. While the number 7 (natujuangngi dalle'na) means always sustenance. After a day can be good, then foreman called a "retainer" to lead the search.

Before the trees are cut, a ceremony to exorcise the wood dwellers. A chicken used as a sacrifice to be offered to the spirits. Types of trees were felled timber is adapted to function. Cutting wood for the board is always adjusted to the direction of the wood grain that terjamm strength. After all the wood sufficient, then collected for dikeringkan.Pembuatan pinisi Tanah Beru boat.

Keel laying ceremony was also wearing special. When cutting, keel positioned toward the Northeast. Keel beam front is a symbol of man. Medium beam rear keel interpreted as a symbol of women. Once blessed, the part that will be cut are marked with a chisel. Cutting is done with a chainsaw should be done at once without stopping. Therefore, cuts must be made by the powerful strong.

The tip paid off already cut should not touch the ground. When the front of the beam is broken, the pieces had to be rushed to be thrown into the sea. Pieces that become objects repellent reinforcements and made allusions As a husband that is ready to fish for a living. While the rear of the keel beam pieces kept in the home, is figured as a sailor's wife who faithfully waited for her husband to go home and bring good fortune.

Keel clamp mounting board, accompanied by Kalebiseang ceremony. Anjarreki ceremony is to strengthen the hull, followed by the preparation of the board from the bottom with a width up to the size of the smallest to the widest. The total number of base board to the boat pinisi is 126 sheets. Once the board is composed terrace, followed by installation of a laid aft rudder bottom.

If the body boats have been completed, proceed with the work a'panisi, which put rags in between boards. To glue board connection so strong, used a type of tree bark barruk. Furthermore, do allepa, ie caulking. Materials made from a mixture of lime putty and coconut oil. The mixture is stirred for 12 hours, treated at least 6 people. To ship 100 tons, required 20 kg of body putty ship. The final touch is rubbing putty with papaya skin.

The process of birth pinisi adalan last release. The ceremony was held again congratulations. Slipway Appasili ceremony begins with the ritual that aims to deny reinforcements. Completeness of the ceremony in the form of a bundle consisting of foliage leaves sidinging, sinrolo, taha tinappasa, taha siri, and panno-panno tied with pimping. Foliage incorporated into the water and then sprinkled with wagging way around the boat. For boats with less weight and 100 tons, usually cut a goat. While for ships of 100 tons or more, cut a cow. Furthermore, there is a ceremony awarding ceremony Ammossi the center in mid-hull boat and then the boat pulled into the sea. The provision of this center is a term that is based on the belief that the boat is a 'child' retainer or Panrita Lopi thus based on the belief that cutting ceremony symbolizes ammossi umbilical cord of a newborn. When pinisi already floating in the sea, then mounted display and two poles. The screen of seven. Boats are launched usually ready with crew. Implemented slipway at high tide and the sun is rising. Retainer aka foreman, as the lead implementing ceremony, seated on the left in full. Prayer or rather spell was spoken.

Pinisi is a traditional sailing boat from Indonesia

Pinisi is a traditional sailing boat from Indonesia, who came from the tribe Bugis and Makassar in South Sulawesi village of Bira district rather than Bonto Maritime Bulukumba. Pinisi actually a screen name. These ships generally have two main masts and seven screens, three on the front end, two in front and two behind; generally used for the transport of goods between islands. Two main mast is based on two sentences creed and fruit tujuah screen is the sum of the surah Al-Fatihah. Pinisi is a ship that uses this type of display screen schooner with two poles with seven strands of the screen and also has a meaning that the ancestors of the Indonesian nation capable mengharungi seven great oceans of the world.

Pinisi timber ships have been used in Indonesia for several centuries ago, is expected to ship pinisi existed before the 1500s. According to the script I Lontarak Chronicle La Lagaligo in the 14th century, first made by Pinisi Sawerigading, Crown Prince Royal Luwu to sail to China had wanted to woo the Chinese princess named We Cudai.

Sawerigading succeeded to the country of China and memperisteri Puteri We Cudai. After a long stay in the country of China, Sawerigading kekampung back home by using Pinisinya to Luwu. Towards the entry Luwu waters and big waves buffeted the ship split Pinisi three stranded in the village of Ara, Tanah Lemo and Bira. Three villages are communities assemble the pieces of the ship into the boat which was later renamed Pinisi. People Ara is the maker of the hull, in Tana Lemo ship assembled and Bira people who designed the ship into the screen Pinisi and seventh born of the thinking of those Bira.

That said, this Pinisi name taken from the name of someone named Pinisi itself. Once when he sailed up the coast of Bira. He saw a barrage of ships around the ocean there, he was later reprimanded one of his captains the ship that uses a screen that still need to be improved. Since then the Bira thinking and designing the screen in such a way and ultimately shaped Pinisi screen that it is today. Top warning the person that the people Bira gave it the name Pinisi screen.

quantum chemistry

Quantum chemistry mathematically describes the fundamental behavior of matter at the molecular level. In principle, it is possible to describe all chemical systems using this theory. In practice, only the simplest chemical systems may realistically be investigated in purely quantum mechanical terms, and approximations must be made for most practical purposes (eg, Hartree-Fock, post-Hartree-Fock or density functional theory, see computational chemistry for more details) . Therefore, understanding of quantum mechanics is not necessary for most chemistry, as the important implications of the theory (principally the orbital approximation) can be understood and applied in simpler terms.

In quantum mechanics (several applications in computational chemistry and quantum chemistry), Hamiltonian, or physical, of a particle can be expressed as the sum of two operators, one associated with the kinetic energy and the potential energy. Hamiltonian in the Schrödinger wave equation used in quantum chemistry has no terminology for electrons round.

Completion of the Schrödinger equation for the hydrogen atom gives the shape of the wave function for the atomic orbitals, and the relative energies of the 1s, 2s, 2p and 3p. Orbital approximation can be used to understand other atoms such as helium, lithium, and carbon.

The chemical reaction

A chemical reaction is a transformation / alteration in the molecular structure. These reactions can result in molecules to form larger molecules, molecules into two or more smaller molecules, or penataulangan atoms in the molecule. Chemical reactions usually involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds.

States of matter

Phase is a collection of state of a macroscopic physical system that is relatively serbasama both their chemical composition and properties of physical properties (eg density, crystal structure, index of refraction, and so forth). Examples of phases that we know is a solid, liquid, and gas. Less familiar phases include plasmas, Bose-Einstein condensation, and condensation Fermions. State phase of the magnetic material is paramagnetic and ferromagnetic.

chemical bonds

Chemical bond is the force that holds the gathering of atoms in a molecule or crystal. In many simple compounds, valence bond theory and the concept of oxidation number can be used to predict molecular structure and composition. Similarly, theories from classical physics can be used to predict many ionic structures. In more complex compounds / complicated, such as metal complexes, valence bond theory can not be used due to a deeper understanding are necessary on the basis of quantum mechanics.

Modern times (1924–present)

Contact with industrialized nations brought Muslim populations to new areas through economic migration. Many Muslims migrated as indentured servants, from mostly India and Indonesia, to the Caribbean, forming the largest Muslim populations by percentage in the Americas. The resulting urbanization and increase in trade in sub-Saharan Africa brought Muslims to settle in new areas and spread their faith, likely doubling the Muslims population between 1869 and 1914. Muslim immigrants, many as guest workers, began arriving, largely from former colonies, into several European nations in the 1960s and 1970s, particularly France and the UK.
New Muslim intellectuals are beginning to arise, and are increasingly separating perennial Islamic beliefs from archaic cultural traditions. Liberal Islam is a movement that attempts to reconcile religious tradition with modern norms of secular governance and human rights. Its supporters say that there are multiple ways to read Islam's sacred texts, and stress the need to leave room for "independent thought on religious matters". Women's issues receive a significant weight in the modern discourse on Islam because the family structure remains central to Muslim identity. Also of issue is the assimilation of Muslim communities and Islamophobia in host countries. Andrew Rippin states that while Muslims believe that Islam stands for both men and women, the social reality suggests otherwise. Christopher Hitchens states that Islam is "dogmatic," and "the fact remains that Islam's core claim – to be unimprovable and final – is at once absurd." Such claims have been challenged by many Muslim scholars and writers including Fazlur Rahman Malik, Syed Ameer Ali, Ahmed Deedat, Yusuf Estes and Tariq Ramadan.

Secular powers such as Chinese Red Guards closed many mosques and destroyed Qurans and Communist Albania became the first country to ban the practice of every religion. In Turkey, the military carried out coups to oust Islamist governments and headscarves were, as well as in Tunisia, banned in official buildings. About half a million Muslims were killed in Cambodia by communists whom, it is argued, viewed them as their primary enemy and wished to exterminate them since they stood out and worshipped their own god. However, Islamist groups such as the Muslim Brotherhood advocate Islam as a comprehensive political solution, often in spite of being banned. Jamal-al-Din al-Afghani, along with his acolyte Muhammad Abduh, have been credited as forerunners of the Islamic revival. In Iran, revolution replaced secular regime with an Islamic state. In Turkey, the Islamist AK Party has democratically been in power for about a decade, while Islamist parties are doing well in elections following the Arab Spring. The Organisation of Islamic Cooperation (OIC), consisting of Muslim countries, was established in 1969 after the burning of the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Islam began to revive not only in Central Asia but also in Russia.

Piety appears to be deepening worldwide. Orthodox groups are sometimes well funded and are growing at the expense of traditional groups. In many places, the prevalence of the Islamic veil is growing increasingly common  and the percentage of Muslims favoring Sharia laws has increased. With religious guidance increasingly available electronically, Muslims are able to access views that are strict enough for them rather than rely on state clerics who are often seen as stooges. Some organizations began using the media to promote Islam such as the 24-hour TV channel, Peace TV. Perhaps as a result of these efforts, most experts agree that Islam is growing faster than any other faith in East and West Africa.

Shia

The Shi'a constitute 10–20% of Islam and are its second-largest branch. While Sunnis believe that Muhammad did not appoint a successor, Shias believe that during The Farewell Pilgrimage the prophet appointed his son-in-law, Ali ibn Abi Talib, as his successor as shown by the Hadith of the pond of Khumm. As a result, they believe that Ali ibn Abi Talib was the first Imam (leader), rejecting the legitimacy of the previous Muslim caliphs since they were not appointed by the prophet. Shias believe that the political and religious leadership of Imams come from the direct descendants of Muhammad and Ali, also known as the Ahl al-Bayt. To most Shias, an Imam rules by right of divine appointment and holds "absolute spiritual authority" among Muslims, having final say in matters of doctrine and revelation. However, the Imams are not allowed to introduce new laws or eradicate old ones; they are simply required to interpret and reflect the will of Allah and the prophet.

Shia Islam has several branches, the largest of which is the Twelvers, followed by Zaidis and Ismailis. The Twelvers believe that there were 12 Imams or caliphs after the Prophet. They often cite the Hadith of the Twelve Successors as evidence. Shias prefer hadiths attributed to the Ahlul Bayt and close associates. The Twelver Shi'a follow a legal tradition called Ja'fari jurisprudence. Other smaller groups, include the Bohra, and Druze, as well as the Alawites and Alevi. Branches of Shia Islam which deviate from mainstream Shia doctrine are described by orthodox Shias as Ghulat.

Sufism

Sufism is a mystical-ascetic approach to Islam that seeks to find divine love and knowledge through direct personal experience of God. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be trained to use. However, Sufism has been criticized by the Salafi sect for what they see as an unjustified religious innovation. Many Sufi orders, or tariqas, can be classified as either Sunni or Shi'a, but others classify themselves simply as 'Sufi'.

Sunni

The largest denomination in Islam is Sunni Islam, which makes up over 75% to 90% of all Muslims. Sunni Muslims also go by the name Ahl as-Sunnah which means "people of the tradition [of Muhammad]". In Arabic language, as-Sunnah literally means "tradition" or "path". The Qur'an and the Sunnah (the example of Muhammad's life) as recorded in hadith are the primary foundations of Sunni doctrine.

According to Sunni Islam, the "normative" example of Muhammad's life is called the Sunnah (literally "trodden path"). This example is preserved in traditions known as Al-Kutub Al-Sittah (six major books) which are hadiths ("reports"), recounting his words, his actions, and his personal characteristics. The classical Muslim jurist ash-Shafi'i (d. 820) emphasized the importance of the Sunnah in Islamic law, and Muslims are encouraged to emulate Muhammad's actions in their daily lives. The Sunnah is seen as crucial to guiding interpretation of the Qur'an. Two major hadith collections are Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. Sunnis believe that the first four caliphs were the rightful successors to Muhammad; since God did not specify any particular leaders to succeed him, those leaders had to be elected. Sunnis believe that a caliph should be chosen by the whole community.

There are four recognised madh'habs (schools of thought): Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali. All four accept the validity of the others and a Muslim may choose any one that he or she finds agreeable. The Salafi (also known as Ahl al-Hadith, or Wahhabi by its adversaries) is an ultra-orthodox Islamic movement which takes the first generation of Muslims as exemplary models.

A Brief History of Windows

Starting from 6 DosShell for Microsoft's DOS and Microsoft wanted to compete against the best-selling Apple Macintosh sales using the GUI, Microsoft created Windows 1.0. The name is derived from kelatahan Microsoft employee who mentioned the application as a Windows program (Windows Program). Windows version 2 is the first Windows version that can be installed program. The only program that can be added is the Microsoft Word version 1. Windows version 3 promises additional applications more, completeness usage, beauty user interface or interface and easy configuration. Windows version 3.1 is the version of Windows that can optimize their use of the processor 32-bit Intel 80386 and above. Windows version is the version of Windows last 3:11 before the era of the Start Menu. Windows 3.11 is also the first Windows version that supports networking / network. Hybrid versions can be run without MS-DOS. The Hybrid version installed itself with DOS 7. Unlike the 16-bit version of Windows which is a shell that must be installed through DOS first. Application is different. Although Windows 9X Windows can run 16-bit applications, but Windows 9X has its own grade applications - x86-32, Windows 9X is very popular with the BSOD (Blue Screen of Death).

Microsoft Windows

Microsoft Windows or better known as Windows is a family of operating systems. developed by Microsoft, using the graphical user interface.

The Windows operating system has evolved from the MS-DOS, an operating system based on text mode and command-line. The first version of Windows, Windows Graphic Environment 1.0 was first introduced on 10 November 1983, but only out of the market in November 1985, designed to meet the needs of the computer to display a picture. Windows 1.0 is a software to 16-bit (not an operating system) running on top of MS-DOS (and some variants of MS-DOS), so he will not be able to run without the operating system DOS. Version 2.x, 3.x versions are the same. Some recent versions of Windows (starting from version 4.0 and Windows NT 3.1) is an independent operating system that no longer relies on the operating system MS-DOS. Microsoft Windows and can be developed and can be controlled using the operating system up to 90%.

Adobe Premiere Pro

Adobe Premiere Pro is a video editing program. It is part of the Adobe Creative Suite, though it can be purchased alone. Even if purchased alone, it includes Adobe Encore and Adobe OnLocation. Although the first two versions are only available for Windows, version CS3 is available for both Windows and Mac OS X. CS3 is available in English, French, German, Japanese, Italian, and Spanish.

Premiere Pro is used by the BBC and The Tonight Show. It has been used for films, such as Dust to Glory, Captain Abu Raed, and Superman Returns, and to other places such as Confessions Tour by Madonna

Features Adobe Dreamweaver

Adobe Dreamweaver is a web design and development application that provides a visual WYSIWYG editor (colloquially known as the Design view) and code editor with standard features such as syntax highlighting, code completion, and code collapsing as well as more advanced features such as real-time syntax checking and code introspection to generate code instructions to help users write code. Design view layout facilitates rapid design and manufacture of such codes allows users to quickly create the layout and manipulation of HTML elements. Dreamweaver has a feature integrated browser for viewing web pages developed its own program in the preview window that allows content to open in the web browser pre-installed. This application provides transfer and synchronization features, the ability to find and replace lines of text or code to search for words or phrases used throughout the site, and a templating feature that allows for the sharing of the source code or update the layout throughout the site without the server side includes or scripting . Behavior panel also enables use of basic JavaScript without any coding knowledge, and integration with Adobe's Spry Ajax framework offers easy access to dynamically-generated content and interfaces.

Dreamweaver can use third-party extensions to extend the core functionality of the application, which any web developer can write (largely in HTML and JavaScript). Dreamweaver is supported by a large community of extension developers who make extensions available (both commercial and free) for web development from simple rollover effects to full-featured shopping cart.

Dreamweaver, like other HTML editor, edit the file locally and then uploaded to a remote web server using FTP, SFTP, or WebDAV. Dreamweaver CS4 now supports the Subversion version control system (SVN).

Primary production

Primary production is the production of organic matter from inorganic carbon sources. Overwhelmingly, this occurs through photosynthesis. The energy incorporated through this process supports life on earth, while the carbon makes up much of the organic matter in living and dead biomass, soil carbon and fossil fuels. It also drives the carbon cycle, which influences global climate via the greenhouse effect.

Through the process of photosynthesis, plants capture energy from light and use it to combine carbon dioxide and water to produce carbohydrates and oxygen. The photosynthesis carried out by all the plants in an ecosystem is called the gross primary production (GPP). About 48–60% of the GPP is consumed in plant respiration. The remainder, that portion of GPP that is not used up by respiration, is known as the net primary production (NPP). Total photosynthesis is limited by a range of environmental factors. These include the amount of light available, the amount of leaf area a plant has to capture light (shading by other plants is a major limitation of photosynthesis), rate at which carbon dioxide can be supplied to the chloroplasts to support photosynthesis, the availability of water, and the availability of suitable temperatures for carrying out photosynthesis.

Ecosystem processes

Energy and carbon enter ecosystems through photosynthesis, are incorporated into living tissue, transferred to other organisms that feed on the living and dead plant matter, and eventually released through respiration. Most mineral nutrients, on the other hand, are recycled within ecosystems.

Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors. External factors, also called state factors, control the overall structure of an ecosystem and the way things work within it, but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem. The most important of these is climate. Climate determines the biome in which the ecosystem is embedded. Rainfall patterns and temperature seasonality determine the amount of water available to the ecosystem and the supply of energy available (by influencing photosynthesis). Parent material, the underlying geological material that gives rise to soils, determines the nature of the soils present, and influences the supply of mineral nutrients. Topography also controls ecosystem processes by affecting things like microclimate, soil development and the movement of water through a system. This may be the difference between the ecosystem present in wetland situated in a small depression on the landscape, and one present on an adjacent steep hillside.

Other external factors that play an important role in ecosystem functioning include time and potential biota. Ecosystems are dynamic entities—invariably, they are subject to periodic disturbances and are in the process of recovering from some past disturbance. Time plays a role in the development of soil from bare rock and the recovery of a community from disturbance. Similarly, the set of organisms that can potentially be present in an area can also have a major impact on ecosystems. Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world can end up doing things very differently simply because they have different pools of species present. The introduction of non-native species can cause substantial shifts in ecosystem function.

Unlike external factors, internal factors in ecosystems not only control ecosystem processes, but are also controlled by them. Consequently, they are often subject to feedback loops. While the resource inputs are generally controlled by external processes like climate and parent material, the availability of these resources within the ecosystem is controlled by internal factors like decomposition, root competition or shading. Other factors like disturbance, succession or the types of species present are also internal factors. Human activities are important in almost all ecosystems. Although humans exist and operate within ecosystems, their cumulative effects are large enough to influence external factors like climate.

Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms (plants, animals and microbes) in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a system. These components are regarded as linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows. As ecosystems are defined by the network of interactions among organisms, and between organisms and their environment, they can come in any size but usually encompass specific, limited spaces (although some scientists say that the entire planet is an ecosystem).

Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential abiotic components of an ecosystem. The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun. It generally enters the system through photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon from the atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important role in the movement of matter and energy through the system. They also influence the quantity of plant and microbial biomass present. By breaking down dead organic matter, decomposers release carbon back to the atmosphere and facilitate nutrient cycling by converting nutrients stored in dead biomass back to a form that can be readily used by plants and other microbes.

Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors. External factors such as climate, the parent material which forms the soil and topography, control the overall structure of an ecosystem and the way things work within it, but are not themselves influenced by the ecosystem. Other external factors include time and potential biota. Ecosystems are dynamic entities—invariably, they are subject to periodic disturbances and are in the process of recovering from some past disturbance. Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world can end up doing things very differently simply because they have different pools of species present. The introduction of non-native species can cause substantial shifts in ecosystem function. Internal factors not only control ecosystem processes but are also controlled by them and are often subject to feedback loops. While the resource inputs are generally controlled by external processes like climate and parent material, the availability of these resources within the ecosystem is controlled by internal factors like decomposition, root competition or shading. Other internal factors include disturbance, succession and the types of species present. Although humans exist and operate within ecosystems, their cumulative effects are large enough to influence external factors like climate.

Biodiversity affects ecosystem function, as do the processes of disturbance and succession. Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people depend; the principles of ecosystem management suggest that rather than managing individual species, natural resources should be managed at the level of the ecosystem itself. Classifying ecosystems into ecologically homogeneous units is an important step towards effective ecosystem management, but there is no single, agreed-upon way to do this.

History and development

Arthur Tansley, a British ecologist, was the first person to use the term "ecosystem" in a published work. Tansley devised the concept to draw attention to the importance of transfers of materials between organisms and their environment. He later refined the term, describing it as "The whole system, ... including not only the organism-complex, but also the whole complex of physical factors forming what we call the environment". Tansley regarded ecosystems not simply as natural units, but as mental isolates. Tansley later defined the spatial extent of ecosystems using the term ecotope.

G. Evelyn Hutchinson, a pioneering limnologist who was a contemporary of Tansley's, combined Charles Elton's ideas about trophic ecology with those of Russian geochemist Vladimir Vernadsky to suggest that mineral nutrient availability in a lake limited algal production which would, in turn, limit the abundance of animals that feed on algae. Raymond Lindeman took these ideas one step further to suggest that the flow of energy through a lake was the primary driver of the ecosystem. Hutchinson's students, brothers Howard T. Odum and Eugene P. Odum, further developed a "systems approach" to the study of ecosystems, allowing them to study the flow of energy and material through ecological systems.

Fall of Abbasids to end of caliphate (1258–1924)

Expansion continued with independent powers moving into new areas. An alliance of European Christian kingdoms mobilized to launch a series of wars, known as the Crusades, aimed at recapturing the Holy Land, though initially successful, was reversed by subsequent Muslim generals such as Saladin, who recaptured Jerusalem in 1187. In Europe, the Crimean Khanate was one of the strongest regional powers in Europe until the end of the 17th century. In the 13th and 14th centuries the Ottoman Empire conquered the Balkans, parts of Greece, Constantinople and reached as far as the gates of Vienna in 1529. Under Ottoman rule, many people in the Balkans became Muslim.
While cultural styles used to radiate from Baghdad, the Mongol destruction of Baghdad led Egypt to become the Arab heartland while Central Asia went its own way and was experiencing another golden age. The Safavid dynasty of Persia made ties with India and Persian poetry rose to new heights while Arabic poetry was in state of decline. The Muslims in China who were descended from earlier immigration began to assimilate by adopting Chinese names and culture while Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.
The Muslim world was generally in political decline, especially relative to the non-Islamic European powers. Large areas of Islamic Central Asia were seriously depopulated largely as a result of Mongol destruction. The Black Death ravaged much of the Islamic world in the mid-14th century. This decline was evident culturally; while Taqi al-Din founded an observatory in Istanbul and the Jai Singh Observatory was built in the 18th century, there was not a single Muslim country with a major observatory by the twentieth century. The Reconquista, launched against Muslim principalities in Iberia, succeeded in 1492 and Muslim Italian states were lost to the Normans. By the 19th century the British Empire had formally ended the last Mughal dynasty. The Ottoman era ended after World War I and the Caliphate was abolished in 1924.
Reform and revival movements during this period include an 18th century Salafi movement led by Ibn Abd al-Wahhab in today's Saudi Arabia. Referred to as Wahhabi, their self designation is Muwahiddun (unitarians). Building upon earlier efforts such as those by the logician Ibn Taymiyyah and Ibn al-Qayyim, the movement seeks to uphold monotheism and purify Islam of later innovations. Their zeal against idolatrous shrines led to the destruction of sacred tombs in Mecca and Medina, including those of the Prophet and his Companions. In the 19th century, the Deobandi and Barelwi movements were initiated.

Abbasid era (750–1258)

Expansion of the Muslim world continued by both conquest and proselytism as both Islam and Muslim trade networks were extending into sub-Saharan West Africa, Central Asia, Volga Bulgaria and the Malay archipelago. The Ghaznavids and Ghurids conquered much of the Indian subcontinent. Many Muslims went to China to trade, virtually dominating the import and export industry of the Song Dynasty.

The major hadith collections were compiled. The Ja'fari jurisprudence was formed from the teachings of Ja'far al-Sadiq while the four Sunni Madh'habs, the Hanafi, Hanbali, Maliki and Shafi'i, were established around the teachings of Abū Ḥanīfa, Ahmad bin Hanbal, Malik ibn Anas and al-Shafi'i respectively. Al-Shafi'i also codified a method to establish the reliability of hadith. Al-Tabari and Ibn Kathir completed the most commonly cited commentaries on the Quran, the Tafsir al-Tabari in the 9th century and the Tafsir ibn Kathir in the 14th century, respectively. Philosophers Al-Farabi and Ibn Sina (Avicenna) sought to incorporate Greek principles into Islamic theology, while others like Al-Ghazzali argued against them and ultimately prevailed.

Caliphs such as Mamun al Rashid and Al-Mu'tasim made the mutazilite philosophy an official creed and imposed it upon Muslims to follow. Mu'tazila was a Greek influenced school of speculative theology called kalam, which refers to dialectic. Many orthodox Muslims rejected mutazilite doctrines and condemned their idea of the creation of the Quran. In inquisitions, Imam Hanbal refused to conform and was tortured and sent to an unlit Baghdad prison cell for nearly thirty months. The other branch of kalam was the Ash'ari school founded by Al-Ash'ari. Some Muslims began to question the piety of indulgence in a worldly life and emphasized poverty, humility and avoidance of sin based on renunciation of bodily desires. Ascetics such as Hasan al-Basri would inspire a movement that would evolve into Sufism. Beginning in the 13th century, Sufism underwent a transformation, largely because of efforts to legitimize and reorganize the movement by Al-Ghazali, who developed the model of the Sufi order—a community of spiritual teachers and students.

Islamic civilization flourished in what is sometimes referred to as the "Islamic Golden Age". Public hospitals established during this time (called Bimaristan hospitals), are considered "the first hospitals" in the modern sense of the word, and issued the first medical diplomas to license doctors of medicine. The Guinness World Records recognizes the University of Al Karaouine, founded in 859, as the world's oldest degree-granting university. The doctorate is argued to date back to the licenses to teach in law schools. Standards of experimental and quantification techniques, as well as the tradition of citation, were introduced to the scientific process. An important pioneer in this, Ibn Al-Haytham is regarded as the father of the modern scientific method and often referred to as the "world’s first true scientist." The government paid scientists the equivalent salary of professional athletes today. Discoveries include gathering the data used by Copernicus for his heliocentric conclusions and Al-Jahiz’s proposal of the theory of natural selection. Rumi wrote some of the finest Persian poetry and is still one of the best selling poets in America. Legal institutions introduced include the trust and charitable trust (Waqf).

The first Muslims states independent of a unified Muslim state emerged from the Berber Revolt (739/740-743). In 836, the capital was moved to Samarra by Caliph Al-Mu'tasim and it was returned to Baghdad in 892. In 930, the Ismaili group known as the Qarmatians unsuccessfully rebelled against the Abbassids, sacked Mecca and stole the Black Stone. By 1055 the Seljuq Turks had eliminated the Abbasids as a military power but continued the caliph's titular authority. The Mongol Empire finally put an end to the Abbassid dynasty, killing its last Caliph at the Battle of Baghdad in 1258.

Muhammad (610–632)

Muhammad was a trader later becoming a religious, political, and military leader. However, Muslims do not view Muhammad as the creator of Islam, but instead regard him as the last messenger of God, through which the Qur'an was revealed. Muslims view Muhammad as the restorer of the original, uncorrupted monotheistic faith of Adam, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and other prophets. In Muslim tradition, Muhammad is viewed as the last in a series of prophets. During the last 22 years of his life, beginning at age 40 in 610 CE, according to the earliest surviving biographies, Muhammad reported revelations that he believed to be from God. The content of these revelations, known as the Qur'an, was memorized and recorded by his companions. During this time, Muhammad preached to the people of Mecca, imploring them to abandon polytheism. Although some converted to Islam, Muhammad and his followers were persecuted by the leading Meccan authorities. After 12 years of preaching, Muhammad and the Muslims performed the Hijra ("emigration") to the city of Medina (formerly known as Yathrib) in 622, after initially trying the Ethiopian Aksumite Empire. There, with the Medinan converts (Ansar) and the Meccan migrants (Muhajirun), Muhammad established his political and religious authority. Within years, two battles had been fought against Meccan forces: the Battle of Badr in 624, which was a Muslim victory, and the Battle of Uhud in 625, which ended inconclusively. Conflict with Medinan Jewish clans who opposed the Muslims led to their exile, enslavement, or death, and the Jewish enclave of Khaybar was subdued. In 628, the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah was signed between Mecca and the Muslims and was broken by Mecca two years later. At the same time, Meccan trade routes were cut off as Muhammad brought surrounding desert tribes under his control.[91] By 629 Muhammad was victorious in the nearly bloodless Conquest of Mecca, and by the time of his death in 632 (at the age of 62) he united the tribes of Arabia into a single religious polity.

Caliphate and civil war (632–750)

With Muhammad's death in 632, disagreement broke out over who would succeed him as leader of the Muslim community. Umar ibn al-Khattab, a prominent companion of Muhammad, nominated Abu Bakr, who was Muhammad's companion and close friend. Others added their support and Abu Bakr was made the first caliph. Abu Bakr's immediate task was to avenge a recent defeat by Byzantine forces, although he first had to put down a rebellion by Arab tribes in an episode known as the Ridda wars, or "Wars of Apostasy".

His death in 634 resulted in the succession of Umar as the caliph, followed by Uthman ibn al-Affan, Ali ibn Abi Talib and Hasan ibn Ali. The first caliphs are known as al-khulafā' ar-rāshidūn ("Rightly Guided Caliphs"). Under them, the territory under Muslim rule expanded deeply into Persian and Byzantine territories. When Umar was assassinated in 644, the election of Uthman as successor was met with increasing opposition. In 656, Uthman was also killed, and Ali assumed the position of caliph. After fighting off opposition in the first civil war (the "First Fitna"), Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. Following this, Mu'awiyah seized power and began the Umayyad dynasty, with its capital in Damascus.

These disputes over religious and political leadership would give rise to schism in the Muslim community. The majority accepted the legitimacy of the three rulers prior to Ali, and became known as Sunnis. A minority disagreed, and believed that Ali was the only rightful successor; they became known as the Shi'a. After Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflict over succession broke out again in a civil war known as the "Second Fitna". The Umayyad dynasty conquered the Maghrib, the Iberian Peninsula, Narbonnese Gaul and Sindh.[98] The local population of Jews and indigenous Christians, persecuted as religious minorities and taxed heavily, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests.

The Umayyad aristocracy viewed Islam as a religion for Arabs only the economy of the Umayyad empire was based on the assumption that a majority of non-Muslims (Dhimmis) would pay taxes to the minority of Muslim Arabs. A non-Arab who wanted to convert to Islam was supposed to first become a client of an Arab tribe. Even after conversion, these new Muslims (mawali) did not achieve social and economic equality with the Arabs. The descendants of Muhammad's uncle Abbas ibn Abd al-Muttalib rallied discontented mawali, poor Arabs, and some Shi'a against the Umayyads and overthrew them with the help of the general Abu Muslim, inaugurating the Abbasid dynasty in 750 and moved the capital to Baghdad.

camera components

A minimum of a camera comprising:

- Light-proof box (camera body)

- Lens system

- The lighter portrait (shutter)

- Movie player

Lens System

Lens system mounted on the front of the pit box, in the form of a single lens made of plastic or glass, or a number of lenses that are arranged in a metal cylinder.

The level of light blockage f expressed with numbers, or relative aperture. The lower the f number, the bigger or smaller opening penghalangannya level. Aperture diaphragm is governed by the window. Relative aperture is set by a diaphragm. For SLR cameras, the lens aperture is equipped with a regulator that controls the amount of light entering the suit photographers.

Lens type fast or slow lens is determined by the range of values ​​that F can be used.

Besides the normal lens, wide angle lens, also known (wide lens), small-angle lens (telephoto lens), and a variable lens (variable lens, or by the layman called the zoom lens.

Wide-angle lens has a focal length lenses are smaller than usual. But it depends on the width designations film used. For the film 35 millimeter, 35 millimeter lens will be called a wide-angle lens, while the 135 mm lens will be called telephoto lenses.

Lenses can be changed variable focus range, by changing the relative position of the lens elements. The lens will focus light to produce a shadow the size of the movie. Grouped according to the length lens focal length (the distance between the two lenses).

Focal lenght affect the composition of images that can be produced. In the general population, better known as zoom.

The lighter Images

Lighter portrait shutter button or mounted behind the lens or between the lens. Most SLR cameras have a timer mechanism to allow varying the shutter opening time. This time is short shutter was opened, allowing the beam of light on the film.

Some ordinary people consider the ability of the camera is proportional to the magnitude of the maximum shutter speed can be used.

Other parts

Other parts of a camera, among other things:

1. Mechanisms that play movies roll film parts alternately be disclosed on an object

2. Focus mechanism which can vary the distance between the lens and the film,

3. Scanner photography composition (range finder) that shows what will be photographed and what the main  

    objects are focussed

4. lightmeter to help set the shutter speed and or large openings, so that the amount of light that the film is   

    quite right to obtain a satisfactory image or picture.

Some cameras, especially the type of pocket cameras usually do not have any of the parts.

History of Cameras

The camera starts from a similar tool known as the Camera Obscura which is a box that has not been equipped with a camera to capture an image or a movie shadow. In the 16th century Girolamo Cardano complete camera obscura with a lens on the front of the camera obscura. However, the image produced was not durable, so the discovery of Girolamo has not been considered as the world of photography. In 1727 Johann Scultze in his research found that highly sensitive silver salts terhada light but he has not come across the concept of how to move ideas forward.

In 1826, Joseph Niepce Nicepore publish images from camera the image produced, in the form of vague picture of the roofs of houses on a pewter plate dipekakan mixture was then known as the first photo. Then, in 1839, Louis Daguerre published its findings in the form of an image resulting from the shadow of a street in Paris on a silver-coated copper plate. Daguerre who held joint venture in 1829 to continue the development program Niepce camera, although Niepce died in 1833, developed a camera known as the daguerreotype cameras are considered practical in the world of photography, where in return for its findings, the French government gave the prize money to a lifetime pension Daguerre and Niepce family. Daguerreotype camera and then developed into a camera developed now